Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a systematic preventive approach to food safety and pharmaceutical safety that addresses physical, chemical, and biological hazards as a means of prevention rather than finished product inspection. HACCP is used in the food industry to identify potential food safety hazards, so that key actions, known as Critical Control Points (CCP's) can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of the hazards being realized. The system is used at all stages of food production and preparation processes including packaging, distribution, etc. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) use mandatory juice, seafood, meat and poultry HACCP programs as an effective approach to food safety and protecting public health. Meat and poultry HACCP systems are regulated by the USDA, while seafood and juice are regulated by the FDA. The use of HACCP is currently voluntary in other food industries. ^[1]

A forerunner to HACCP was developed in the form of production process monitoring during World War II because traditional "end of the pipe" testing wasn't an efficient way to ferret out artillery shells that would not explode. HACCP itself was conceived in the 1960s when the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) asked Pillsbury to design and manufacture the first foods for space flights. Since then, HACCP has been recognized internationally as a logical tool for adapting traditional inspection methods to a modern, science-based, food safety system. Based on risk-assessment, HACCP plans allow both industry and government to allocate their resources efficiently in establishing and auditing safe food production practices. In 1994, the organization of International HACCP Alliance was established initially for the US meat and poultry industries to assist them with implementing HACCP and now its membership has been spread over other professional/industrial areas.^[2]

Hence, HACCP has been increasingly applied to industries other than food, such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. This method, which in effect seeks to plan out unsafe practices, differs from traditional "produce and test" quality assurance methods which are less successful and inappropriate for highly perishable foods. In the US, HACCP compliance is regulated by 21 CFRFAO/WHO published a guideline for all governments to handle the issue in small and less developed food businesses.^[3] part 120 and 123. Similarly,

Contents 1 The HACCP Seven Principles 2 HACCP Training 3 HACCP application (USA) 4 HACCP implementation 5 HACCP Software 6 Notes 7 See also 8 External links

The HACCP Seven Principles

Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. Plants determine the food safety hazards and identify the preventive measures the plant can apply to control these hazards. A food safety hazard is any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human consumption.

Principle 2: Identify critical control points. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point, step, or procedure in a food manufacturing process at which control can be applied and, as a result, a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level.

Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each critical control point. A critical limit is the maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or chemical hazard must be controlled at a critical control point to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level.

Principle 4: Establish critical control point monitoring requirements. Monitoring activities are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each critical control point. In the United States, the FSIS is requiring that each monitoring procedure and its frequency be listed in the HACCP plan.

Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. These are actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from an established critical limit. The final rule requires a plant's HACCP plan to identify the corrective actions to be taken if a critical limit is not met. Corrective actions are intended to ensure that no product injurious to health or otherwise adulterated as a result of the deviation enters commerce.

Principle 6: Establish record keeping procedures. The HACCP regulation requires that all plants maintain certain documents, including its hazard analysis and written HACCP plan, and records documenting the monitoring of critical control points, critical limits, verification activities, and the handling of processing deviations.

Principle 7: Establish procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as intended. Validation ensures that the plants do what they were designed to do; that is, they are successful in ensuring the production of safe product. Plants will be required to validate their own HACCP plans. FSIS will not approve HACCP plans in advance, but will review them for conformance with the final rule.

Verification ensures the HACCP plan is adequate, that is, working as intended. Verification procedures may include such activities as review of HACCP plans, CCP records, critical limits and microbial sampling and analysis. FSIS is requiring that the HACCP plan include verification tasks to be performed by plant personnel. Verification tasks would also be performed by FSIS inspectors. Both FSIS and industry will undertake microbial testing as one of several verification activities. Verification also includes 'validation' - the process of finding evidence for the accuracy of the HACCP system (e.g. scientific evidence for critical limitations).

The seven HACCP principles are included in the international system ISO 22000. This standard is a complete food safety management system incorporating the elements of prerequisite programmes for food safety, HACCP and quality management system which together form an organization’s Total Quality Management.

HACCP Training

HACCP management system trainings are only offered by several commercial enthusiasts.^[4][5]ASQ does provide Trained HACCP Auditor (CHA) exam to individuals seeking the professional training.^[6] However,

HACCP application (USA)

• Fish and fishery products ^[7]
• Fresh-cut produces ^[8]
• Juice and nectary products ^[9]
• Food outlets ^[10]
• Meat and poultry products ^[11]
• School food and services ^[12]

HACCP implementation

It involves monitoring, verifying and validating of the daily work that is compliant with regulatory requirements in all stages all the time. The differences among those three types of work are given by Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food ^[13]

HACCP Software

Software for HACCP (or ISO 22000) has mainly focused on a document management approach. The available software usually involve a programme which records the determination of the seven principles (or the practical 13 steps) in planning a HACCP system for an organization and associated documentations. Whilst this is useful in assisting in the planning – software for HACCP (or ISO 22000) needs to address the actual implementation of the HACCP plan and the subsequent day-to-day practical operations and management of the plan such as Critical Control Point monitoring, Corrective Action, traceability etc. Such requirement puts the software specification much closer to those of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and process control software. Aspects such as product specifications, real time monitoring of production parameters, automated alerts of monitoring jobs, corrective action required, etc are seldom integrated in the software commonly seen in the market. Data collected should also be stored in a database for easy manipulation.

Vision For Food: an integrated modular software covering all food safety aspects in any production facilities to achieve HACCP, ISO22000, TQM and British Retail Consortium's Global Standard for Food Safety. Vision for Food provides interactive assistance in planning, implementation and on-going daily operations and management of food safety. It runs on a SQL database and thus data collected form a knowledge database strengthening any TQM systems - easing analysis of data for process control, root cause analysis, corrective action, continual improvement, etc. Vision For Food modules include the following core functionalities:

♦ Total Quality Management

♦ Product Recipe Definition Management

♦ New Product Development

♦ Stage Gate Process Design

♦ New Product Costing

♦ Raw Material Specifications

♦ Finished Goods Specifications

♦ HACCP/ISO 22000 Design & Compliance

♦ HACCP Prerequisites

♦ Paperless Monitoring

♦ HACCP Monitoring

♦ Quality Assurance Monitoring

♦ Process Control Monitoring

♦ Production Systems Monitoring

♦ Batch Traceability

♦ Assured Quality Levels

♦ Supplier Performance

♦ Nutritional Breakdown

♦ Process Automation

MyHaccp is a work tool that manages the six prerequisite programs and the various control points of the HACCP system. It allows the HACCP team to plan, organize, execute, verify, trace and visualize all aspects of the HACCP system in the same software environment. ^[14]

MyHaccpPlan is a comprehensive software for creating HACCP plans (Forms 1 to 10) by using reliable and tested generic models. It has been thought and developed specifically for helping HACCP Coordinator in the development and/or the maintenance of HACCP plans. ^[15]

Notes

1. ^ Food Safety Research Information Office."A Focus on Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points". Created June 2003, Updated March 2008.
2. ^ International HACCP Alliance. "International HACCP Alliance". Retrieved on 12 October, 2007.
3. ^ FAO/WHO. "FAO/WHO guidance to governments on the application of HACCP in small and/or less-developed food businesses". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
4. ^ TQ Vision. "Welcome to TQ Vision". Retrieved on 9 October, 2007.
5. ^ International Certifications Limited. "International Certifications". Retrieved on 9 October, 2007.
6. ^ American Society for Quality. "HACCP Auditor Certification - CHA". Retrieved on 9 October, 2007.
7. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Fish and fisheries products hazards and controls guidance, third edition". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
8. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "(draft) Guide to minimize microbial food safety hazards of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
9. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Guidance for Industry: Juice HACCP Hazards and Controls Guidance, First Edition". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
10. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Managing Food Safety: A HACCP Principles Guide for Operators of Food Establishments at the Retail Level (Draft)". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
11. ^ Food Safety and Inspection Service. "FSIS Microbiological Hazard Identification Guide For Meat And Poultry Components Of Products Produced By Very Small Plants". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
12. ^ United States Department of Agriculture. "Guidance for school food authorities: developing a school food safety program based on the process approach to HACCP principles". Retrieved on 14 October, 2007.
13. ^ Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food. "Monitoring, Verification and Validation". Retrieved on 20 March, 2008.
14. ^ MyHaccp.ca. "Software environment for managing the HACCP System". Retrieved on 20 August, 2008.
15. ^ MyHaccpPlan.com. "Software for creating and managing HACCP plans". Retrieved on 20 August, 2008.

See also

Failure mode and effects analysis Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis Fault tree analysis Food safety Design Review Based on Failure Mode Fast food restaurant

Hazard analysis Hazop Hygiene Sanitation Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures Codex Alimentarius

External links

• International HACCP Alliance
• Small & Very Small Plant Outreach - FSIS guidances for meat and poultry products
• HACCP Discussion Forum
• HACCP Postnuke Module
• Rutgers University HACCP Courses and HACCP Training
• Online Food Safety Management Course incorporating HACCP
• Software HACCP (portuguese)
• HACCP Turkish Certification Agency
• Canadian Food Inspection Agency Contains free templates and guides for HACCP programs to meet Canadian Food and Drug Regulations for the public but targeting federally registered establishments.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HACCP

Usaha Susu Jagung

Tidak ada susu sapi, susu jagung pun jadi. Bahan bakunya murah, namun isi kandungan tidak kalah. Anita Surachman
Minum susu kedelai adalah hal yang biasa, tetapi kalau minum susu dari jagung manis seperti apa ya rasanya? Bagi anda yang belum pernah merasakan tidak ada salahnya untuk mencoba. Sekali anda mencoba pasti akan suka. Karena dari segi rasa susu jagung tidak kalah enak dibanding susu kedelai atau susu sapi. Bahkan belakangan ini sebagian masyarakat sudah mengkonsumsi sebagai pengganti produk susu biasa. Susu jagung juga dapat dijadikan alternatif pengganti susu hewan yang belakangan santer diberitakan harganya melonjak naik.

Untuk mengenal dan menikmati susu jagung manis alangkah baiknya kita memahami dulu tentang manfaat dan kandungan gizi yang terdapat pada jagung manis. Jagung manis (zea mays saccharata) biasa digunakan sebagai bahan baku jagung bakar, sayur mayur, juga dapat dibuat susu jagung manis atau tempe jagung manis.

Susu jagung manis dikenal pula dengan sebutan corn milk, adalah produk inovasi baru dengan rasa unik. Dari segi kelebihan, minuman ini dapat memulihkan energi atau stamina dalam waktu cepat dan menjaga kesehatan mata, hati, lambung, usus serta diyakini sebagai minuman bebas kolesterol. Kandungan seratnya yang tinggi memperlancar pencernaan dan kadar gula yang rendah sehingga cocok untuk diet. Juga dapat mengobati penyakit diabetes dikarenakan jagung manis mengandung gula alami.

Hal inilah yang kemudian dikembangkan oleh Ahsan Abduh Andi Sihotang. Mahasiswa Tekhnologi Industri Pertanian, Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB). Ahsan sebagai pemilik ide tidak sendirian, bersama keempat rekannya Ary Try Purbanyanto, Nadiyah Khaeriyyah, Muhammad Akhlis Mustaghfiri dan Linda Mikowati berhasil meramu susu jagung. Susu yang dijual seharga Rp 1.500/cupnya ini diberi nama O-Thanx mengutip potongan dari nama belakang Ahsan. Susu ini ternyata sudah sangat terkenal dikalangan mahasiswa IPB, produk O-Thanx sangat sering mengisi bazaar di IPB. Produk susu jagung karya lima mahasiswa ini pernah meraih juara II dalam ajang bergengsi Young Entrepreneur Awards 2007 yang diselenggarakan Bisnis Indonesia dengan mengalahkan ratusan peserta lain.

Ahsan, salah satu mahasiswa yang terlibat dalam pengembangan produk susu tersebut mengatakan, awal mula usaha ini masih berkaitan dengan latar belakang pendidikan dan jurusannya di mana dalam hal ini mereka ditekankan untuk meningkatkan nilai tambah dari komoditi-komoditi pertanian. Dari pembagian komoditi pertanian yang ada pilihan Ahsan jatuh pada jagung dari situlah ia mulai konsen. Sampai akhirnya terpikir untuk meningkatkan nilai tambah jagung tersebut, terbesit dibenaknya susu dari kedelai maka tergeraklah Ahsan untuk mencoba membuat susu olahan tapi terbuat dari jagung. Karena pada jagung terdapat kandungan pati yang sama dengan kedelai. Tak hanya itu, jagung juga merupakan salah satu komoditi yang banyak dan murah harganya terutama ketika panen, sehingga jika diolah akan banyak sekali keuntungannya.

Ide mengolah jagung menjadi susu ini kemudian diwujudkan dalam bentuk proposal dan diikutsertakan dalam lomba program kreatifitas mahasiswa yang diselenggarakan oleh Dirjen DIKTI (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi). Berselang kemudian proposal yang diajukan pun lolos sampai akhirnya mereka mendapatkan bantuan dari Dikti sebesar Rp4,5 juta. Dana yang cair itu digunakan sebagai modal awal untuk memulai usaha susu jagung yang berdiri pada Januari 2007. Modal awal penelitian ini digunakan untuk membeli alat-alat seperti blender, kompor, cup-sieler, ice box, kemasan, thermometer, panci, saringan, baskom dan bahan baku pembuat susu.

Cara membuat minuman susu jagung ini ternyata tidaklah sulit. Sebelumnya pilihlah jagung manis yang nampak segar, tidak terlalu tua juga tidak terlalu muda, bentuknya masih bagus dan tidak keriput, jagung itu dibersihkan, direbus sampai matang lalu ditiriskan, kemudian didinginkan. Biji jagung dipipil sehingga terpisah dari bonggolnya dengan menggunakan pisau tajam, setelah itu diblender, tambahkan air hangat yang telah dicampur gula, untuk pengental Ahsan menambahkan CMC (Carboxymethylcellulose), tapi sekarang CMC diganti dengan susu skim. “Supaya kandungan proteinnya bertambah,” terang Ahsan.

Hasil dari blender tadi lantas diperas dan disaring untuk diambil sarinya, setelah dipasteurisasi selanjutnya dikemas kedalam gelas plastik ukuran 200 ml dan dimasukkan ke lemari pendingin agar tahan lebih lama, biasanya ketahanan bisa sampai satu minggu.

Dalam menjalankan usahanya, mahasiswa angkatan 42 semester VI ini mengaku kerap kali masih ada kendala yang dihadapi. “Setiap usaha pasti tidak lepas dari kendala, yang paling krusial sejauh ini tentang masalah bahan baku, karena kita belum bisa menyetoknya. Sebab jagung manis yang dibeli dengan jumlah banyak dan disimpan beberapa lama kadar gulanya akan menurun drastis. Sifat alami gula memang seperti itu, gula jagung yang teroksidasi akan menurun kadarnya. Sedang, industri yang baik itu harus memiliki stok. Tapi permasalahannya, bahan baku tidak bisa disimpan dalam jangka waktu lama, jadi dari segi penyimpanan itulah yang masih jadi kendala. Untuk kendala lain adalah masalah efisiensi dan efektifitas produksi, karena kapasitas alat produksinya kecil, ke depannya kita ingin punya alat yang lebih besar, jadi lebih dapat menampung kapasitas, dengan begitu hasil produksi jadi efektif dan efisien,” ungkapnya.

“Harapan kedepannya ada penelitian yang berbasis jagung, supaya ditemukan cara penyimpanan jagung manis agar awet dalam waktu beberapa bulan ke depan. Selain itu, untuk masalah legalitas industri ini dimudahkan dan dibantu pendampingannya, melalui institusi atau pemerintah dan koperasi setempat. Juga ada dana bergulir untuk industri kecil. Harapannya mudah-mudahan bisnis ini bisa sukses dengan didukung oleh semua elemen sehingga kita bisa menjadi generasi-generasi mandiri, generasi yang berbasis pada entrepreneur dan job creator,” Ahsan menambahkan.

Karena permintaan untuk marjin dari retail yang terlalu besar, O-thanx susu jagung ini belum masuk ke toko-toko. Produk susu jagung ini dipasarkan dengan sistem order, Ahsan ingin produknya merambah ke ritail atau swalayan, dalam jangka waktu dekat ingin juga masuk ke perumahan dosen yang mau berlangganan. Tentunya dengan kemasan yang berbeda yakni kemasan botol kaca. Hal tersebut akan masuk ke dalam rencana pemasarannya. “Untuk itu sudah ada rencana buat kedepan mau coba masuk ke retail itu, tapi segmentasi pasarnya kita yang atur, jadi positioning-nya juga memang barang ekslusif dengan harga yang relatif terjangkau,” kata remaja berumur 19 tahun ini.

Kenapa Susu Jagung?
- Dapat memulihkan energi atau stamina dalam waktu cepat
- Menjaga kesehatan mata, hati, lambung, usus serta diyakini sebagai minuman bebas
kolesterol.
- Kandungan seratnya yang tinggi memperlancar pencernaan dan kadar gula yang rendah cocok
untuk diet.
- Dapat mengobati penyakit diabetes dikarenakan jagung manis mengandung gula alami.

Jika ingin mengutip/menyebarluaskan artikel ini harap mencantumkan sumbernya.
Source : © 2008 Peluang Usaha dan Solusinya

http://cari-peluang-usaha.blogspot.com/search/label/Usaha%20Susu%20Jagung?max-results=5

Success Likelihood Index Method (SLIM)

Success Likelihood Index Method (SLIM) is a technique used in the field of Human reliability Assessment (HRA), for the purposes of evaluating the probability of a human error occurring throughout the completion of a specific task. From such analyses measures can then be taken to reduce the likelihood of errors occurring within a system and therefore lead to an improvement in the overall levels of safety. There exist three primary reasons for conducting an HRA; error identification, error quantification and error reduction. As there exist a number of techniques used for such purposes, they can be split into one of two classifications; first generation techniques and second generation techniques. First generation techniques work on the basis of the simple dichotomy of ‘fits/doesn’t fit’ in the matching of the error situation in context with related error identification and quantification and second generation techniques are more theory based in their assessment and quantification of errors. ‘HRA techniques have been utilised in a range of industries including healthcare, engineering, nuclear, transportation and business sector; each technique has varying uses within different disciplines.

SLIM is a decision-analytic approach to HRA which uses expert judgement to quantify Performance Shaping Factors (PSFs); factors concerning the individuals, environment or task, which have the potential to either positively or negatively effect performance e.g. available task time. Such factors are used to derive a Success Likelihood Index (SLI), a form of preference index, which is calibrated against existing data to derive a final Human Error Probability (HEP). The PSF’s which require to be considered are chosen by experts and are namely those factors which are regarded as most significant in relation to the context in question.

The technique consists of two modules: MAUD (multi-attribute utility decomposition) which scales the relative success likelihood in performing a range of tasks, given the PSFs probable to affect human performance; and SARAH (Systematic Approach to the Reliability Assessment of Humans) which calibrates these success scores with tasks with known HEP values, to provide an overall figure.

Background

SLIM was developed by Embrey et al [1] for use within the US nuclear industry. By use of this method, relative success likelihoods are established for a range of tasks, and then calibrated using a logarithmic transformation.

SLIM Methodology

The SLIM methodology breaks down into ten steps of which steps 1-7 are involved in SLIM-MAUD and 8-10 are SLIM-SARAH.

1. Definition of situations and subsets

Upon selection of a relevant panel of experts who will carry out the assessment, these individuals are provided with as fully detailed a task description as possible with regards to the individual designated to perform each task and further factors which are likely to influence the success of each of these. An in depth description is a critical aspect of the procedure in order to ensure that all members of the assessing group share a common understanding of the given task. This may be further advanced through a group discussion prior to the commencement of the panel session to ascertain of consensus. Following this discussion, the tasks under consideration are then classified into a number of groupings depending upon the homogeneity of the PSF’s that have an effect on each. Subsets are thus defined by those tasks which have in common specific PSFs and also by their weighting within a certain sub-group; this weighting is only an approximation at this stage of the process.

2. Elicitation of PSFs

Random sets of 3 tasks are presented to experts from which they are required to compare one against the other two and subsequently identify an aspect in which the highlighted task differs from the remaining two; this dissimilarity should be a characteristic which affects the probability of successful task completion. The experts are then asked to highlight the low and high end-points of the identified PSF i.e. the optimality of the PSF in the context of the given task. For example the PSF may be Time Pressure and therefore the end points of the scale would perhaps be “High level of pressure” to “Low level of pressure”. Other possible PSFs may be stress levels, task complexity or degree of teamwork required. The of this stage is to identify those PSF’s which are most prevalent in affecting the tasks as opposed to eliciting all the possible influencing factors.

3. Rating the Tasks on the PSFs

The endpoints of each individual PSF, as identified by the expert, are then assigned the values 1 and 9 on a linear scale. Using this scale, the expert is required to assign to each task a rating, between the two end points, which accurately reflects, using their judgement, the conditions occurring in the task in question. It is optimal to consider each factor in turn so that the judgements made are independent from the influence of other factors which otherwise may affect opinion.

4. Ideal Point Elicitation and Scaling Calculations

The “ideal” rating for each PSF is then selected on the scale constructed. The ideal is the point at which the PSF least degrades performance – for instance both low and high time pressure may contribute to increasing the chance of failure. The MAUD software then rescales all other ratings made on the scale in terms of their distance from this ideal point, with the closest being assigned as a 1 and the furthest from this point as a 0. This is done for all PSF’s until the experts are agreed that the list of PSF’s is exhausted and that all the scale positions identified are correctly positioned.

5. Independence Checks

Using the figures which represent the relative importance of each task and their rating on the relevant scale, these are multiplied to produce a Success Likelihood Index (SLI) figure for each task. To improve the validity of the process it is necessary to confirm that each of the scales in use are independent to ensure no overlap or double counting in the overall calculation of the index. To help carry out this validation task, MAUD software checks for correlations between the experts’ scoring on the different scales; if the scale ratings indicate a high correlation, the experts are consulted to reveal whether they agree in their meanings of the ratings on the two scales which are showing similarities. If this situation occurs, the experts are asked to define a new scale which will be a combination of the meaning of the two individually correlated scales. If the correlation is not significant then the scales are treated as independent; in this case, the concerned facilitator is required to make an informed decision as to whether or not the PSFs showing similarities are actually similar and should therefore ensure that a strong justification is explainable for the final decision.

6. Weighting Procedure

This stage of the process concentrates on eliciting the emphasis required to be weighted to each of the PSFs in terms of the influence on the success of a task. This is done by enquiring, with the experts, the likelihood of success between pairs of tasks while considering two previously identified PSFs. By noting where the experts’ opinion is changed, the weighting of the effect of each PSF on the task success can thus be inferred. To enhance the accuracy of the outcome, this stage should be carried out in an iterative manner.

7. Calculation of the SLI

The Success Likelihood Index for each task is deduced using the following formula: SLIj = (RijWi) Where

• SLIj is the SLI for task j
• Wi is the importance weight for the ith PSF
• Rij is the scaled rating of task j on the ith PSF
• x represents the number of PSFs considered.

These SLI’s are estimates of the probability with which different types of error may occur.

8. Conversion of SLIs to probabilities

The SLIs previously calculated require to be transformed to HEPs as they are only relative measures of the likelihood of success of each of the considered tasks. The relationship

                          Log P = a SLI + b

is assumed to exist between SLIs and HEPs. P is the probability of success and a and b are constants; a and b are calculated from the SLIs of two tasks where the HEP has already been established.

9. Uncertainty Bound Analysis

Uncertainty bounds can be estimated using expert judgement methods such as Absolute Probability Judgement (APJ).

10. Use of SLIM-SARAH for Cost-Effectiveness Analyses

As SLIM evaluates HEPs as a function of the PSFs, considered to be the major drivers in human reliability, it is possible to perform sensitivity analysis by modifying the scores of the PSFs. By considering the PSFs which may be altered, the degree to which they can be changed and the importance of the PSFs, it is possible to conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine how worthwhile suggested improvements may be i.e. what-if analysis, the optimal means by which the calculated HEPs can be reduced.

Worked Example

The following example provides a good illustration of how the SLIM methodology is used in practice in the field of HRA.

Context

In this context an operator is responsible for the task of de-coupling a filling hose from a chemical road tanker. There exists the possibility that the operator may forget to close a valve located upstream of the filling hose, which is a crucial part of the procedure; if overlooked, this could result in adverse consequences, of greater effect to the operator in control. The primary human error of concern in this situation is ‘failure to close V0204 prior to decoupling filling hose’. The decoupling operation required to be conducted is a fairly easy task to carry out and does not require to be completed in conjunction with any further tasks; therefore is failure occurs it will have a catastrophic impact as opposed to displaying effects in a gradual manner.

Required Inputs

This technique also requires an ‘expert panel’ to carry out the HRA; the panel would be made up of for example two operators possessing approximately 10 years experience of the system, a human factors analyst and a reliability analyst who has knowledge of the system and possesses a degree of experience of operation. The panel of experts is requested to determine a set of PSFs which are applicable to the task in question within the context of the wider system; of these, the experts are then required to propose those PSFs, of the identified, which are the most important in the circumstances of the scenario. For this example, it is assumed that the panel put forth 5 main PSFs for consideration, which are believed to have the greatest effect on human performance of the task: training, procedures, feedback, perceived risk and time pressure.

Method

PSF Rating

Considering the situation within the context of the task under assessment, the panel are asked to provide further possible human errors which may occur that have the potential of affecting performance e.g. mis-setting or ignoring an alarm. For each of these, the experts are required to establish the degree to which each is either optimal or sub-optimal for the task under assessment, working on a scale from 1 to 9, with the latter being the optimal rating. For the 3 human errors which have been identified, the ratings decided for each are provided below:

Errors	Training	Procedures	Feedback	Perceived Risk	Time
VO2O4 open	6	5	2	9	6
Alarm mis-set	5	3	2	7	4
Alarm ignored	4	5	7	7	2

PSF Weighting

Were each of the identified human errors of equal importance, it would then be possible to obtain the summation of each row of ratings and come to the conclusion that the row with the lowest total rating- in this case it would be alarm mis-set- was the most probable to occur. In this context, as is most often the case, the experts are in agreement that the PSFs given above are not of equal weighting. Perceived risk and feedback are deemed to be of greatest importance, twice as much as training and procedures, which these two are considered to be one and a half times more important than the factor of time. The time factor is of considered of minimal importance in this context as the task is routine and is therefore not limited by time.

The importance of each factor can be observed through the allocated weighting, as provided below. Note that they have been normalised to sum to unity.

PSF	Importance
Perceived Risk	0.3
Feedback	0.3
Training	0.15
Procedures	0.15
Time	0.10
Sum	1.0

Using the figures for the scaled weighting of the PSFs and the weighting of their importance, it is now possible to calculate the Success Likelihood Index (SLI) for the task under assessment.

Weighting	PSF's	V0204	Alarm Mis-set	Alarm Ignored
0.3	Feedback	0.60	0.60	2.10
0.3	Perceived Risk	2.70	2.10	2.10
0.15	Training	0.90	0.75	0.60
0.15	Procedures	0.75	0.45	0.75
0.10	Time	0.60	0.40	0.20
	SLI (total)	0.55	0.43	5.75

From the results of the calculations, as the SLI for ‘alarm mis-set’ is the lowest, this suggests that this is the most probable error to occur throughout the completion of the task.

However these SLI figures are not yet in the form of probabilities; they are only indications as to the likelihood by which the various errors may occur. The SLIs determine the order in which the errors are most probable to occur; they do not delineate the absolute probabilities of the PSFs. To convert the SLIs to HEPs, the SLI figures require to first be standardised; this can be done using the following formulation.

                           Log10 (HEP) = a.SLI + b

Result

If the two tasks for which the HEPs are known are incorporated in the task set which is undergoing quantification then the equation parameters can be determined by using the method of simultaneous equations; using the result of this the unknown HEP values can thus be quantified. In the example provided, were two additional tasks to be assessed e.g. A and B, which had HEP values of 0.5 and 10 -4 respectively and SLIs respectively of 4.00 and 6.00, respectively, then the formulation would be:

                             Log (HEP) = -1.85SLI + 7.1

The final HEP values would thus be determined as

V0204 = 0.0007 Alarm mis-set = 0.14 Alarm ignored = 0.0003

References

[1] EMBREY, D.E., Humphreys, P.C., rRosa, E.A., Kirwan, B. & Rea, K., SLIM-MAUD: An approach to assessing human error probabilities using structured expert judgement. NUREG/CR-3518. 1984, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Washington DC.

[2] Humphreys, P. (1995) Human Reliability Assessor’s Guide. Human Factors in Reliability Group.

[3] Kirwan, B. (1994). A Practical Guide to Human Reliability Assessment. CPC Press.

[4] Corlett, E.N., & Wilson, J.R. (1995). Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. Taylor & Francis.

Reff dari, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Success_likelihood_index_method

…Ssst, Masih Semangat Kerja Gak?

Posting dari Milis Corporate HR (corpHR@yahoogroups.com)

Rabu, 3 Desember, 2008 10:13:05

Written by : Ruli Amirullah

Assalamualaikum Wr Wb,

Selamat Pagi…!

Bagaimana kabar hari ini? Sebentar-sebentar, khususnya bagi teman-teman yang ada di kantor, saya ganti pertanyaannya lebih spesifik.. ‘bagaimana kabar semangat kerja anda hari ini?’

Ssst.. gak perlu jawab keras-keras. Jawab aja dalam hati…

Bagi yang tanpa jeda langsung jawab ‘semangat! On fire!’.. mungkin bisa close email ini dan baca email lain yang lebih penting.

Tapi bagi yang butuh beberapa detik untuk jawab.. apalagi trus jawabannya ‘biasa ajah’ nah.. daripada malah browsing internet yang gak perlu, mending lanjutin baca. Hehehe..

Kehilangan semangat kerja?

Kehilangan motivasi kerja?

Kenapa ya bisa begitu…

Ada dua factor penyebab. Yang pertama, bisa terjadi karena factor dari dalam diri, misalnya pusing mikir hutanglah, berantem sama pasangan lah atau hal-hal yang bersifat pribadi lainnya deh. Nah kalau ini masalahnya mungkin bisa kirim permasalahan anda rubric Kolom Keluarga yang diasuh para psikolog terkenal..

Penyebab yang kedua, adalah factor lingkungan!

Mau tau ciri-cirinya? Coba sekarang, lihat sekeliling. Perhatikan teman-teman yang ada. Bagaimana suasananya?

Apakah mereka mengerjakan tugasnya sambil tersenyum atau sambil menggerutu?

Apakah lebih banyak celotehan riang atau obrolan yang isinya lagi-lagi membahas mengenai buruknya manajemen?

Apakah semua orang merasa senang membantu yang lain ataukah semua orang merasa sibuk sendiri and nobody care with him?

Apakah lebih sering menyambut jam pulang kantor dengan terkejut (haa… udah jam 5 lagi? Cepet amat), atau malah setengah jam sebelumnya sudah sibuk siap-siap pulang…

Kalau yang terjadi adalah pilihan-pilihan yang kedua, maka something wrong dengan lingkungan kerja anda!

Itu yang membuat anda kehilangan semangat kerja, dan rasanya bukan cuma anda yang kehilangan semangat itu, tapi juga teman-teman, bahkan mungkin keselurahan kantor..

Berarti sudah tidak ada keceriaan di kantor anda

Tidak ada lagi keriangan..

Tidak ada lagi kebersamaan. .

Semua berjalan bagai robot, bagai orang yang mendapat beban berat di punggung..

Be careful..!

Lingkungan seperti itu bisa menjadi seperti tempat pembuangan limbah beracun!

Yang harus anda lakukan adalah, masuk ke ruang atasan anda (jangan lupa ketok pintu dulu) dan mengatakan ini padanya..

“Bos, Mari kita ubah suasana kerja kita!”

Weeeh… nekad ya?! Hehehe.. ya sudah kalau tidak berani, cukup baca aja email ini..

Tapi, yang harus dilakukan memang itu.. Ubah lingkungan kerja kita menjadi suatu lingkungan yang menyenangkan!

Bagaimana caranya?

Nah, inilah yang ingin saya sharing setelah membaca buku Fish! ( Catch the Energy & Release the Potential, karangan Stephen C.Lundin, Harry Paul dan Jhon Christensen ). Ada 4 cara untuk mengubah kerja jadi hal yang menyenangkan. .

Pertama.. PILIH SIKAPMU..

Kita mungkin gak bisa seenaknya mau kerja sebagai apa dan dimana (emang gampang cari kerja? Ini aja masuknya udah setengah mati susahnya, lewat saudara pula, hehehe). Tapi, bukankah kita bisa seenaknya milih sikap kita dalam menghadapi pekerjaan itu? Kita bisa senyum dan nikmati atau malah menggerutu dan merasa tersiksa karenanya..

Yakan? Kita kan raja atas pikiran kita sendiri.. so, perintahkan pada hati agar bersikap sesuai dengan yang kita inginkan.. mau pilih senyum atau kesal?

Kedua.. BERMAIN..

Haaa… lagi kerja kok bermaiiin…hehehe..

Maksudnya, ciptakan lingkungan kerja kita bagai taman bermain. Suasananya! Mau contoh? Pasar ikan, dimanapun anda berada, bisa jadi adalah pasar yang becek, bau dan tidak menyenangkan. Tapi coba deh kunjungi pasar ikan yang bernama Pike Place Fish di Seatlle, USA (wedeeh.. gak ada tempat yang lebih deket lagi apa? Hhihi.. maaf maaf.. oke gak usah dateng kesana deh, saya ceritain aja ya..). Di pasar ikan tersebut, selain bersih dan ada café-café yang asik, yang membuatnya menjadi salah satu tempat wisata adalah karena para pedagangnya yang riang..

Untuk mengirimkan ikan ke temannya, mereka seringkali melempar ikan, kepiting dan mahluk laut lainnya..

Melempar?

Yup! Bahkan kadang melempar melewati kepala para pengunjung.. melemparnya sambil terkadang juga berteriak jenaka..

Seru bukan? Dan itu mereka lakukan agar suasana hati mereka selalu riang. Mereka sadar bahwa mereka kerja di suatu lingkungan yang mungkin bisa jadi lingkungan paling membosankan. Tapi mereka kemudian berhasil menciptakan suasana riang..

Mau tau keuntungan dari terciptanya suasana riang? Kita akan bahagia! Dan orang yang berbahagia pun akan memperlakukan orang lain dengan baik pula. Kegembiraan juga akan menghasilkan kreativitas. Mana ada ide cemerlang datang saat kita sedang marah? Selain itu, waktu juga akan berjalan dengan cepat. Tiba-tiba udah jam pulang kantor, dan kita akan sedih seperti anak kecil yang mobil bom2 car-nya berhenti karena waktunya sudah habis..

Tapi…. Jangan buru-buru melemparkan monitor computer ke teman anda untuk menciptakan suasana riang di kantor anda. Tidak harus saling melempar untuk tertawa. Hehehe..

Ini ada beberapa ide dari buku tersebut, misalnya dengan mengadakan kontes lelucon terbaik minggu ini, bikin dinding menjadi lebih menarik dan hidup dengan berbagai hiasan, bikin event-event bulanan secara khusus, dll dll…

***

Nah itu baru dua cara, masih ada dua cara lagi. Tapi, untuk yang berminat lebih jauh. Mungkin bisa beli bukunya ya di toko-toko buku terkemuka. Soalnya kalau ditulis di email ini semuanya, bisa panjang emailnya. Ntar bosen bacanya.. Hehehehe… (eh, tapi kalau tetep ada yang mau, kasih tau aja, nanti saya kirim ke email masing-masing. Apanya? Bukunya? Ya bukanlah.. tapi ulasan saya tentang 2 tip terakhir.. hehehe)

Intinya…

Ciptakan suasana riang dengan memilih sikap kita..

Hal ini bahkan tidak hanya bisa kita terapkan di dunia kerja, tapi juga di kehidupan kita..

Kita adalah pemilik atas sikap kita sendiri, walau kita mungkin kita tidak bisa memilih dan mengubah takdir yang telah terjadi, tapi percayalah, kita akan selalu bisa memilih bagaimana sikap kita dalam menghadapi dan menjalani takdir tersebut…

Kita adalah raja atas pikiran kita..

So, let’s smile together my friend..

World is wonderful…

Wassalam

Ruli Amirullah
Feel the love of Ar Rahmaan
Wanna feel it? Join ESQ Training..
Read my article at : http://ruliamirulla h.multiply. com
Contact me at : 085-888-509931
send Email to: ruli_amirullah@ yahoo.com
Website : www.esqway165. com

Tips untuk Penilaian Performa

Untuk meminimalkan tunutan hukum karyawan, majikan harus mengembangkan daftar periksa hal-hal yang perlu untuk menunjang sistem penilaian yang adil, konsisten, legal, dan wajar.

• Berikan penilaian terhadap standar performa karyawan di muka. Ketika seorang karyawan baru dipekerjakan atau ketika standar baru diberlakukan, supervisor harus merevisi deskripsi kerja dan formulir evaluasi performa, dan salinannya harus diberikan kepada semua karyawan yang terpengaruh.
• Dokumentasikan semua masalah performa secara berkala berdasarkan formulir penilaian yang sesuai atau formulir disiplin progresif. Berikan salinan segera ke karyawan. Format yang benar untuk menjalankan evaluasi akan menghasilkan catatan informasi yang akurat dan menyeluruh. Sebaliknya, informalitas akan menghasilkan klaim diskriminasi.
• Berikan masukan yang relevan kepada karyawan. Evaluasi yang bias, umum, atau subjektif dapat mengakibatkan tuntutan hukum.
• Segera lakukan evaluasi terhadap karyawan yang nonprodutif. Apabila manajer mentoleransi karyawan dengan masalah performa selama beberapa bulan dan tiba-tiba memberinya evaluasi negatif dan memberhentikannya, maka karyawan dapat mengklaim bahwa tindakan itu sewenang-wenang atau diskriminatif dan dia mungkin akan dapat menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada kesempatan baginya untuk memperbaiki.
• Berikan kesempatan kepada karyawan untuk berkomentar atau membantah tentang penilaian performa. Ini akan mendukung kenyataan bahwa Anda telah memberi peringatan kepada karyawan.
• Latihlah supervisor untuk mengevaluasi performa karyawan dan untuk menjalankan sistem penilaian di perusahaan.
• Buatlah sistem audit pengkajian untuk mencegah bias atau perasaan pribadi para manajer terhadap proses penilaian.
• Buatlah pernyataan kebijakan tertulis yang hanya menyetujui prosedur khusus untuk menjalankan penilaian.
• Dokumentasikan lewat file performa serta pengujian terkait pekerjaan, sistem rating, formulir penilaian, dan memorandum bertanda tangan

Reff dari:
http://indonesia.smetoolkit.org/indonesia/id/content/id/376/Tips-untuk-Penilaian-Performa

BELAJAR MENDELEGASIKAN

Beberapa pemilik usaha kecil bangga dengan kenyataan bahwa mereka melakukan segala sesuatu untuk bisnis mereka sendiri. Namun tak selalu sesuai dengan pertimbangan bisnis bahwa suatu perusahaan hanya dioperasikan oleh satu orang. Kenyataannya, Anda perlu mendelegasikan sebanyak mungkin yang Anda bisa apabila Anda ingin bisnis berkembang. Jika tidak, mungkin suatu saat Anda akan selalu kekurangan waktu, terlalu banyak tanggung jawab, dan bisnis berjalan di tempat dalam bisnis.

Ada tiga alasan pokok mengapa pengusaha kecil mengatakan mereka tidak bisa mendelegasikan. Beberapa alasan umum disebutkan di bawah ini. Pelajari semua alasan tersebut dan cari tahu mengapa alasan-alasan tersebut kurang kuat. Kemudian gunakan lembar kerja sebagaimana diuraikan di bawah ini untuk membantu Anda memahami tanggung jawab apa saja yang dapat didelegasikan.

Uang - "Saya tidak mampu membayar sesorang untuk melakukan hal ini untuk saya".

Pandangan picik ini menghindari pendelegasian dengan alasan besarnya investasi keuangan yang dibutuhkan. Memang, Anda harus membayar seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu yang dapat Anda kerjakan sendiri. Namun apabila Anda seorang konsultan dengan bayaran $100 per jam, haruskah Anda menghabiskan waktu untuk menangani surat dan amplop? Gunakan waktu bebas Anda dari pendelegasian tersebut untuk mencari bisnis baru. Dengan cara ini, Anda masih bisa menghasilkan uang dari berbagai tugas yang Anda kontrakkan keluar dan Anda juga akan menghasilkan uang dari pekerjaan yang baru.

Waktu - "Dibutuhkan waktu yang terlalu lama untuk melatih seseorang. Saya dapat melakukan sendiri pekerjaan ini dengan lebih cepat".

Tidak memiliki waktu untuk melatih seseorang seringkali menjadi tabir bagi hal lain seperti misalnya ketakutan karena tidak bisa mengontrol. Kalau ini dasar pertimbangan Anda, tulislah semua tugas Anda dan tuliskan berapa lama waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mengajari seseorang mengurus mereka untuk Anda. Kemudian pilih satu atau dua pekerjaan yang paling mudah untuk diserahkan kepada orang lain dan mulailah dengan mereka. Dengan cara ini, Anda akan dapat secara bertahap memberikan tanggung jawab rutin lainnya.

Kualitas - "Tidak seorang pun yang dapat melakukannya sebaik saya".

Ini adalah alasan paling kuno; mungkin ada benarnya. Namun ini bukan alasan untuk menghindari pendelegasian. Seseorang yang Anda pekerjakan mungkin tidak melakukan sebaik Anda. Namun pikirkan tentang pekerjaan yang dapat dilakukan orang ini apabila dia sudah terlatih. Apabila Anda sudah memastikan bahwa hanya Anda yang dapat menyelesaikan tugas secara sempurna, Anda punya dua pilihan: simpan tugas tersebut untuk Anda sendiri dan delegasikan tugas lain, atau menerima bahwa sesuatu telah dilakukan dengan baik daripada dilakukan dengan sempurna. Dengan waktu yang cukup banyak, satu pekerjaan yang sangat baik sudah cukup.

Lembar Kerja Pendelegasian

Gunakan lembar kerja untuk menentukan bagaimana Anda memanfaatkan waktu Anda. Gunakan untuk rentang waktu satu dua minggu untuk melihat berapa banyak waktu yang Anda habiskan untuk setiap tugas (baik pekerjaan penting maupun pekerjaan sepele). Anda mungkin menemukan bahwa Anda menghabiskan banyak waktu untuk beberapa tugas tertentu yang dapat dengan mudah didelegasikan.

Lembar kerja Anda harus terdiri atas tiga kolom:

Tugas / Kegiatan Waktu yang Dihabiskan Rencana Pendelegasian

Gunakan kolom "Rencana Pendelegasian" untuk mencatat segala ide Anda untuk berbagai langkah yang perlu ditempuh untuk mendelegasikan tugas. Masukkan daftar calon karyawan yang potensial.

Gunakan untuk rentang waktu satu dua minggu untuk melihat berapa banyak waktu yang Anda habiskan untuk setiap tugas (baik pekerjaan penting maupun pekerjaan sepele). Mungkin Anda temukan bahwa Anda menghabiskan banyak waktu untuk beberapa tugas tertentu yang dengan mudah dapat didelegasikan

Reff: http://indonesia.smetoolkit.org/indonesia/id/content/id/264/Belajar-Mendelegasikan